Polynesian narratives suggest that Māori navigators reached Antarctic waters as early as the 7th century, though other research calls this into question. While British explorer James Cook crossed the Antarctic Circle in 1773 and sighted some outlying islands, no European set eyes on mainland Antarctica until January 1820.
A Russian expedition is thought to have been the first to near the coast, though British explorers spotted land at a similar time. Twenty years later, American, British and French expeditions further explored the region, confirming the existence of the landmass.
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It was officially named by an American naval lieutenant in 1840. Another wave of exploration occurred at the end of the 19th century, notably resulting in the 1911 discovery of the South Pole. The ‘Heroic Age’ of Antarctic exploration extended until World War I.
Following the war, exploration resumed and continues to the present day – some 70 research stations now operate in Antarctica. The first claim to national sovereignty over the continent predates its actual discovery. Spain laid claim to all territory south of the Strait of Magellan in 1539, with the land transferred to Chile in 1555.
The UK made the first official claim in 1908, asserting dominion over the Trinity Peninsula, which had been sighted by Edward Bransfield in 1820. The claim was eventually expanded to include a slice of the continent extending to the South Pole.
A series of additional claims followed, often citing colonial legislation or early presence of their countrymen on the continent. Each area stretches from the coast to the South Pole, dividing the icy expanse into wedges.
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New Zealand staked its flag on the Ross Dependency in 1922. Two years later, France re-established an unofficial 1840 claim on Adélie Land. Norway, Germany and Australia then took wedges in later decades.
And Chile and Argentina made a grab for Antarctic land in the 1940s, citing the centuries-old Spanish claims.
However, the 1959 Antarctic Treaty essentially neutralises all claims, neither disputing nor confirming them. The existing claims cannot now be expanded and no new ones can be established under the agreement.
The continent is designated as a region for international scientific cooperation. Commercial resource extraction, disposal of waste, nuclear testing and military operations are prohibited.
All 58 signatory countries have access to the entirety of the landmass and to each other’s research stations.
And an international commission to conserve marine life, such as Weddell seals and Emperor penguins, was established in 1982
